The Elephanta Caves are located on the island of Gharapuri, about 16 km from Mumbai. This island is also known as Elephanta. Around 1534 CE, when the Portuguese arrived in Rajbandar, they saw a stone sculpture of an elephant near the caves. From that sculpture, the island came to be called "Elephanta," and the caves here began to be referred to as the "Elephanta Caves." This elephant sculpture is now housed in Jijamata Udyan in Mumbai. There are a total of seven caves on the island—five Shaivite caves and two Buddhist caves. The five Shaivite caves are on the western hill, while the two Buddhist caves are on the eastern hill. In 1987, these caves were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is not definitively known who carved these caves, and no inscription or record within the caves provides this information. There was once an inscription on the island, but since it could not be read, the Portuguese sent it to Portugal, where it was later lost. Because of this, the creators of these caves remain unknown. ... Based on the sculptures, their style, and attire, archaeologists have estimated that these caves were carved by the Rashtrakutas around the 8th–9th centuries. Some suggest that, due to similarities with Gupta and Shaka-period sculptures, they might have been carved during the reign of Chalukya king Pulakeshi II after his victory over Harshavardhana. Besides the sculptures, there were once paintings and colourful decorations on the walls and ceilings. From the remains of the structures here, some scholars believe that Gharapuri was the ancient capital called Mangalpuri, ruled between the 6th and 9th centuries by the Maurya or Shilahara kings of the Konkan. In ancient times, Gharapuri was an excellent port and a major center of maritime trade. The ancient ports of Kalyan, Shristhana (Sthanak), Sopara, and Chaul were nearby, making it convenient for merchants. Remains of a built stupa from the Ashoka period and coins from the reign of Satavahana king Shri Yagna Satakarni (2nd century CE) have been found here. During the Satavahana period, the two Buddhist caves were carved, proving that the island was inhabited even earlier. In later times, the name "Puri" appears in records, meaning "a city surrounded by the sea." The region subsequently came under the rule of the Rashtrakutas, Kalchuri, and Maurya, during which the Shaivite caves were carved. By the 9th–10th centuries, the Shilahara of North Konkan, vassals of the Rashtrakutas, had their first capital at "Puri," according to inscriptions and copper plates. Some researchers believe this capital was either Gharapuri Island itself or Rajpuri near Janjira. The Shilahara kingdom included parts of present-day Thane and Raigad districts, with around 1,400 villages under their control. The last Shilahara king of North Konkan was Someshwar. As the power of the Yadavas of Devgiri grew, Yadav ruler Krishna sent his general Malla on a campaign against Someshwar. Though Malla defeated Someshwar, he failed to annex the region. Krishna’s brother and successor, Mahadev Yadav, continued the campaign, leading a large force with elephants. Someshwar, defeated on land, fled to the sea. Mahadev pursued him into the deep waters off the north coast, decisively defeating him in a naval battle in 1265 CE, ending Shilahara rule in North Konkan. A hero stone from Akasar village in Borivali depicts these battles—one on land using elephants, the other at sea using boats. Within 40 years, the Yadavas of Devgiri themselves were overthrown by Malik Kafur. The later history of Gharapuri is not well known, but by the 14th–15th centuries, the island was under the Sultans of Gujarat. In 1534, the Portuguese took control, and the sculptures gained fame. In 1661, the island, along with Mumbai, was given as a dowry to King Charles II of England. The distinctive features of these caves are their layout, columns, and sculptures. Their plan is similar to the Ellora caves, but here the Trimurti (three-faced Shiva) is in a separate sanctum rather than facing the main entrance. The column capitals are circular, with finely carved fluting. Most sculptures depict episodes from the life of Shiva, reflecting a Shaivite revival. Each sculpture illustrates a mythological story brought vividly to life by the sculptors. Overall, the Gharapuri Caves were carved between 900 and 1300 CE and are an outstanding example of Indian rock-cut art. They are hewn from solid basalt and can be visited by taking a launch from the Gateway of India—a one-hour journey. The first boat leaves at 8:30 a.m., the last at 2:30 p.m., and the return boat leaves the island at 5 p.m. The service is closed during the monsoon, and the caves are closed on Mondays. The island covers about 14 sq. km, with a small village named Gharapuri on its southern side. From the jetty, it is a 15-minute walk and climb to the caves. At the top, one path leads to the caves, another to a hill with cannons. Entry is free for children under 15 and ₹10 for adults. The main Shaivite caves consist of five caves, with Cave 1 on the eastern side and three important caves on the west. The principal cave likely served as a temple for devotees. Rooms flanking the veranda in front of the Sadashiv sculpture were probably used for meditation or esoteric rituals. Cave 1 is the finest example of Shaivite art and architecture here and shows affinities with the Pashupata sect. The northern entrance leads to a pradakshina path, where the first notable sculpture is that of Lakulish, the founder of the Pashupata sect, considered an incarnation of Shiva. The walls depict the five stages of an ascetic’s life. The cave’s spacious hall is supported by massive columns. On the left wall near the entrance is Yogeshvara Shiva, depicted in deep meditation, with Brahma, Vishnu, Surya, Gandharva, Apsara, and sages around him. On the right wall is Nataraja Shiva in a vigorous dance pose, with Kartikeya, Ganesha, Parvati, and other deities. The most famous sculpture here is the colossal Trimurti Sadashiv, about 5.46 m high, carved in high relief from the rock. The three visible faces represent Shiva’s creator, preserver, and destroyer aspects—calm, fierce, and benevolent—while the other two heads, Sadyajata and Ishana, are unseen, symbolically behind and above. On either side of the Trimurti are two grand panels—the left depicting Ardhanarishvara (half-male, half-female form of Shiva and Parvati, symbolizing creation), and the right showing the descent of the Ganga, with Shiva receiving the river in his matted locks as Parvati reacts with jealousy. Other panels depict the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, attended by gods and sages, and the slaying of the demon Andhakasura, where Shiva holds a skull to catch the demon’s blood while striking him with a trident. The carving of the idol is in high relief, and there is no circumambulatory path around it. The sculptor has crafted this idol with extraordinary skill, and it is regarded as the pinnacle of Indian sculpture. Many people consider this image to represent Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, but it is entirely Shaiva in nature. In this cave, Brahma and Vishnu have been given only secondary importance in other sculptural panels. Researchers hold two different opinions about this Trimurti. According to one, the sculpture represents a synthesis of Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh; according to the other, all three forms are those of Shankar (Shiva) himself. The renowned scholar Stella Kramrisch believes these three forms are all aspects of Mahadev: in the center is Tatpurusha–Mahadev, on the left is Aghora–Bhairav, and on the right is Vamadeva–Uma. The distinctions between these three forms of Mahadev are depicted with exceptional grace. Each has its own symbols, distinct facial features, unique expressions, separate crowns, and even though the eyes are closed, different emotions are conveyed. The differing moods of Aghora–Bhairav, Tatpurusha Mahadev, and Vamadeva are clearly visible. The Trimurti is carved up to the head and chest. All three faces are exquisitely beautiful, with the intricate ornamentation on their crowns being particularly noteworthy. Around the neck is a pearl necklace, and on the chest is a pearl ornament and a jewelled pendant. The right hand is broken. Upon the head is a mass of matted locks (jata) topped with a tall, ornate crown. In the right ear is a tiger-shaped earring (vyaghra-kundala), and in the left ear is a crocodile-shaped earring (makara-Kandala). On the forehead is a carved kirtimukhas motif. The statue is enormous. Although three faces are visible, it is considered to be the Panchamukhi Shiva or Sadashiv. These visible faces show three different expressions of Shiva — the Creator (Vidhata), the Preserver (Trata), and the Destroyer (Samhara). Respectively, these expressions are serene, fierce, and noble. The left face is Aghora, the central face is Tatpurusha, and the right face is Vamadeva. The fourth face, called Sadyajata, is believed to be on the back of the head, while the fifth, Ishana, is considered to be above, in the sky. The left-hand Aghora face symbolizes Shiva’s fierce aspect, as its name suggests. The face has a moustache, a third eye on the forehead, snake-shaped earrings, and holds a serpent in one hand. The hair is curly, the crown bears a carved skull, and the facial expression is one of indifference. The central Tatpurusha face expresses deep serenity. On the matted locks is an ornate crown, and in the left hand is a citron fruit (mahalunga), a symbol of fertility, signifying Shiva’s role as the sustainer of life. The right-hand Vamadeva face is on Shiva’s left side, hence the name; it is also considered to be the face of Parvati. The expression is pure and gentle, the face tender and serene. The hair is adorned, the ears have ornaments, and bangles adorn the arms. The crown is of a different style and the hand holds a lotus. Beneath the crown, curly hair covers the ears, and the crown itself is decorated with pearl strings and clusters, topped by a blooming lotus. This statue is carved on the wall directly opposite the entrance. On both sides are rows of columns. As this is the most important sculpture here, the sanctum of the Shiva Linga is not placed at the center but carved in the right-hand corner. The Sadashiv sculpture is framed within a rectangular panel, flanked on both sides by massive doorkeepers (dvarapala) holding their weapons — these figures are not mere attendants but ayudhapurusha (personifications of weapons). Other sculptural panels here also feature such ayudhapurusha dvarapala. And here too, the doorkeepers seen on other sculpted panels are indeed weapon-bearing male guardians. On the walls on either side of this exquisitely handsome Sadashiv, two beautifully carved sculpted panels can be seen. Of these, the one on the left is an extremely fine depiction of Ardhanarishvara. Ardhanarishvara is the combined form of Shiva and Parvati—symbolising the union of the masculine and the feminine, or Purush and Prakriti, thus representing the creative principle. The Ardhanarishvara image is in tribhanga posture and is four-armed. The right half is Shiva’s, the left half is Uma’s. The image is 5.10 m high. Shiva’s matted locks and Parvati’s hair bun are draped in brocade cloth and crowned with a tall, jewelled tiara. From the design of the crown emerge Shiva’s matted locks on the right and Parvati’s curly hair on the left. Shiva’s locks bear a crescent moon, his earlobe is long with a single earring, whereas Parvati’s ears have a pair of ear ornaments. Though the figure is one, the expressions differ on each side, and so does the fitting physique—Parvati’s hips and breasts testify to her feminine grace, while Shiva’s broad chest and slender waist attest to his masculinity. Shiva’s half rests on Nandi for support, his elbow placed on the bull’s hump, whereas Parvati’s half, being feminine, is shown more delicate—her hand resting on her own hip. In one of Shiva’s hands is a serpent noose, and as Parvati is a woman, her hand holds a mirror. This mirror is convex, because mirrors of the time were made by polishing stone or metal smooth, and the convex shape allowed a larger reflection. Parvati’s hair is tied into a bun. Behind and around Ardhanarishvara are many other figures. To Shiva’s left stands Skanda holding a spear; above him are Brahma and Indra on Airavata. On Parvati’s side are Varun on a makara and Vishnu on Garuda, with Vishnu holding a discus. Above are Gandharva and Apsara, while below Ardhanarishvara are attendants. On the wall to Sadashiva’s right is a sculpted panel depicting the Ganga descent episode. The story of the Ganga’s descent is told in the Ramayana, but here it is rendered slightly differently. This image is carved within a 3.75 × 5.50 m frame, with Shiva about 5 m high and Parvati about 3.75 m. Two of Shiva’s arms are broken, and of the two remaining, one rests on the head of a dwarf gana, and the index finger of the other touches Parvati’s chin. Shiva’s matted locks are covered with a three-tiered crown, from the top of which emerges a half-figure of a three-faced woman, thought to symbolise the sacred rivers Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati. The weight of this burden causes Shiva to lean slightly, while he seems to draw Parvati close; Parvati, appearing annoyed, seems to move away. She wears a crown on her curly hair and a bun at the back, adorned from earrings to anklets, and clothed in fine drapery. Beside her stands a maid. Parvati’s figure is in tribhanga, with only the shoulder part inclined toward Shiva. Below Shiva sits Bhagirath with folded hands in prayer. Above Shiva’s head in the sky, the three-faced Ganga is eager to descend into his matted locks. The three faces represent her triple path—she travels through heaven, earth, and the netherworld. In heaven she is Mandakini, on earth Bhagirathi (brought down by Bhagirathi’s penance), and in the netherworld Bhogavati (redeeming the sons of Sagar). Seeing another woman about to enter her husband’s hair, Parvati moves away out of womanly jealousy. The tilt of Shiva and Parvati’s bodies in opposite directions creates perfect balance in the panel’s composition. To witness this marvel of Ganga’s descent, Brahma, Vishnu, Gandharva, and Apsara are also shown present. In front of the Ganga descent is the Kalyanasundara Shiva panel—the wedding of Shiva and Parvati. Having won Shiva’s affection through her service, Parvati was proposed to by Shiva via the seven sages sent to her father, Himalaya. Once Himalaya consented, their marriage took place, bringing joy to all gods who attended. The scene shows Shiva and Parvati in the centre, with Shiva’s hand once holding Parvati’s (now broken). The sculpture conveys both the joy of union and the sorrow of separation with deep feeling. Parvati’s image is proportionate and well-built; both images have suffered damage. Parvati is to Shiva’s right, her right hand formerly in Shiva’s left. This wedding scene surpasses even the famed one in Cave 21’s Rameshwar cave at Ellora. Brahma himself officiates, seated and arranging the ceremony. Himalaya, father of the bride, gently brings his daughter, followed by Chandra carrying a pot of nectar. Himalaya’s face shows fulfilment, knowing his daughter’s groom is none other than Mahadev, while Parvati’s half-closed eyes reflect contentment. She clasps Shiva’s hand, and he, immersed in joy, places one hand on his waistcloth and the other supporting her. Gods, Gandharva, sages, and Apsara witness this unparalleled wedding. Opposite this is Shiva’s destructive form—Andhakasura-vadha. Andhaka, granted a boon by Brahma that each drop of his blood would produce another demon, terrorised the gods, who sought Shiva’s help. At that time, the demon Nila assumed the form of an elephant to harass sages worshipping Shiva. Shiva slew Gajasur first, draping his hide around himself, then killed Andhaka with his trident, holding a skull in which to collect his blood to prevent it from spawning more demons. Drops that fell outside were quickly drunk by the goddess Chamunda, whom Shiva created through his yogic power. The sculpture is highly realistic—though its lower part is damaged, the scene is clear. Eight-armed Shiva, in wrath after slaying Gajasur, holds a sword in one hand, drives his trident into Andhaka with another, and collects blood in the skull. His rage is so intense his eyes seem to bulge from their sockets, his tooth pierces his lip, tearing it. The crown bears a skull, heightening the fearsome effect. He stands with one leg bearing weight, the other lifted. Parvati and attendants once shown at his feet are now broken, though fragments remain. On the left side of the hall, to Ardhanarishvara left, are two more panels. One shows Uma-Maheshwar, though damaged, depicting Shiva and Parvati playing the board game saripat. The board is broken, but gana gather below to watch, Nandi lies below, and Skanda stands to Parvati’s right; above are assembled gods and Gandharva. Parvati, losing constantly to Shiva’s skill, is slightly annoyed and moves away, while Shiva holds her hand to console her. Opposite this is the Ravananugraha panel. After defeating Kubera and seizing his Pushpaka Vimana, Ravana came to Kailas to see Shiva. Turned away by the doorkeepers as Shiva and Parvati were playing their game, the arrogant Ravana attempted to lift Mount Kailas. With all his hands he began to raise it from its base. Shiva, calming the frightened Parvati and the terrified gana, pressed Kailas down with his toe. Crushed, Ravana begged for mercy and sang hymns to Shiva, winning his grace. The panel shows the ten-headed Ravana lifting Kailas with his twenty arms, while gana are terrified. Parvati, still apart from Shiva after their quarrel, is steadied by him with one hand, as he presses Kailas with his toe to humble Ravana. Beside Shiva is Ganesha, with Bhringi at his feet. The rounded rocks in the sculpture represent Kailas; below is the damaged figure of Ravana. Shiva is tall and majestic, crowned with a crescent moon and a halo, with a calm, resolute expression and a third eye on his brow; his hands are broken. Apart from these famous panels, the four-armed doorkeepers, Kartikeya, Brahma, Vishnu, and others are also noteworthy. In the right corner of the hall is the sanctum, of the sarvatobhadra type—open on all four sides, with entrances on each, guarded by imposing weapon-bearing guardians, Vidyadhara above, and a Shivalinga within. To the right is a small simple cave, with a large underground water tank and a shrine with a Shivalinga, and on its wall is an image of Yogeshvara Shiva. The cave to the left is grander, with reconstructed pillars, a hall, sanctum, lions flanking its sides, Bhairav and Shaiva doorkeepers, and small side chambers. In front is a massive rangashila (performance platform), where once Nandi may have stood, or musicians may have performed before the deity. The right-hand side chamber is notable for its large Ashtamatrika panel, symbol of the Pashupata sect, flanked by facing images of Ganesha and Skanda—Skanda holding a spear in one hand and a cock (given by Agni) in the other. On either side are Brahma, Vishnu, gana, Gandharva, and Apsara. Along with the usual seven mothers—Indrani, Vaishnavi, Brahmani, Kaumari, Varahi, Maheshwari, and Chamunda—here is also the eighth, Narasimhi. Each mother stands holding her child, with her mount shown on a flag beside her. Though many are damaged, Brahmani is identified by the swan, Kaumari by the peacock, Chamunda by the vulture, and Maheshwari by the bull. After this, the main Gharapuri cave tour ends. A short distance away is Cave 2, incomplete, with damaged sculptures and Shivalinga. Cave 3, with its pillared façade, has a hall, sanctum, guardian figures, and a central large Shivalinga. Cave 4 is also incomplete, with doorkeepers, much damage, a Shivalinga inside, and two dark side chambers. Below Cave 5 is a large tank; across on the opposite hill are two Buddhist caves with a large stupa, now buried in earth and closed due to collapse. Viewing all Gharapuri caves takes about an hour, but to understand the sculptures fully requires five. From the hilltop, one sees the whole island, its harbours—Rajbandar, Shetlander, Mora Bandar—and far away Mumbai, Nhava Sheva port, and the vast sea. Some sculptures from here are now in Mumbai’s Prince of Wales Museum. Other remains found include a 3rd-century brick stupa, many Shivalinga, fragments of Shiva images, building foundations, and large brick pieces scattered around. Most sculptures have suffered heavy damage. In 1939, water seepage caused a large portion of the Trimurti to fall. Natural decay and human vandalism make preservation difficult; salt in the air and water weakens the rock, and seepage damages the caves. The Archaeological Department has filled cracks with cement, dug drains, and erected stone supports for roofs. Recently, the Trimurti was packed with wet paper pulp to remove salts, then coated with a protective layer. Maharashtra has many caves, but the Shaiva caves of Gharapuri are unique. To see this beauty of Indian sculpture, one must visit at least once.
© Suresh Nimbalkar